Add many string features

[normand.git] / normand / normand.py

# The MIT License (MIT)
#
# Copyright (c) 2023 Philippe Proulx <eeppeliteloop@gmail.com>
#
# Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
# a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
# "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
# without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
# distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
# permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
# the following conditions:
#
# The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
# included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
#
# THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
# EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
# MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT.
# IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
# CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT,
# TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE
# SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.

# This module is the portable Normand processor. It offers both the
# parse() function and the command-line tool (run the module itself)
# without external dependencies except a `typing` module for Python 3.4.
#
# Feel free to copy this module file to your own project to use Normand.
#
# Upstream repository: <https://github.com/efficios/normand>.

__author__ = "Philippe Proulx"
__version__ = "0.19.0"
__all__ = [
    "__author__",
    "__version__",
    "ByteOrder",
    "LabelsT",
    "parse",
    "ParseError",
    "ParseErrorMessage",
    "ParseResult",
    "TextLocation",
    "VariablesT",
]

import re
import abc
import ast
import sys
import copy
import enum
import math
import struct
import typing
from typing import Any, Set, Dict, List, Union, Pattern, Callable, NoReturn, Optional


# Text location (line and column numbers).
class TextLocation:
    @classmethod
    def _create(cls, line_no: int, col_no: int):
        self = cls.__new__(cls)
        self._init(line_no, col_no)
        return self

    def __init__(*args, **kwargs):  # type: ignore
        raise NotImplementedError

    def _init(self, line_no: int, col_no: int):
        self._line_no = line_no
        self._col_no = col_no

    # Line number.
    @property
    def line_no(self):
        return self._line_no

    # Column number.
    @property
    def col_no(self):
        return self._col_no

    def __repr__(self):
        return "TextLocation({}, {})".format(self._line_no, self._col_no)


# Any item.
class _Item:
    def __init__(self, text_loc: TextLocation):
        self._text_loc = text_loc

    # Source text location.
    @property
    def text_loc(self):
        return self._text_loc


# Scalar item.
class _ScalarItem(_Item):
    # Returns the size, in bytes, of this item.
    @property
    @abc.abstractmethod
    def size(self) -> int:
        ...


# A repeatable item.
class _RepableItem:
    pass


# Single byte.
class _Byte(_ScalarItem, _RepableItem):
    def __init__(self, val: int, text_loc: TextLocation):
        super().__init__(text_loc)
        self._val = val

    # Byte value.
    @property
    def val(self):
        return self._val

    @property
    def size(self):
        return 1

    def __repr__(self):
        return "_Byte({}, {})".format(hex(self._val), repr(self._text_loc))


# Literal string.
class _LitStr(_ScalarItem, _RepableItem):
    def __init__(self, data: bytes, text_loc: TextLocation):
        super().__init__(text_loc)
        self._data = data

    # Encoded bytes.
    @property
    def data(self):
        return self._data

    @property
    def size(self):
        return len(self._data)

    def __repr__(self):
        return "_LitStr({}, {})".format(repr(self._data), repr(self._text_loc))


# Byte order.
@enum.unique
class ByteOrder(enum.Enum):
    # Big endian.
    BE = "be"

    # Little endian.
    LE = "le"


# Byte order setting.
class _SetBo(_Item):
    def __init__(self, bo: ByteOrder, text_loc: TextLocation):
        super().__init__(text_loc)
        self._bo = bo

    @property
    def bo(self):
        return self._bo

    def __repr__(self):
        return "_SetBo({}, {})".format(repr(self._bo), repr(self._text_loc))


# Label.
class _Label(_Item):
    def __init__(self, name: str, text_loc: TextLocation):
        super().__init__(text_loc)
        self._name = name

    # Label name.
    @property
    def name(self):
        return self._name

    def __repr__(self):
        return "_Label({}, {})".format(repr(self._name), repr(self._text_loc))


# Offset setting.
class _SetOffset(_Item):
    def __init__(self, val: int, text_loc: TextLocation):
        super().__init__(text_loc)
        self._val = val

    # Offset value (bytes).
    @property
    def val(self):
        return self._val

    def __repr__(self):
        return "_SetOffset({}, {})".format(repr(self._val), repr(self._text_loc))


# Offset alignment.
class _AlignOffset(_Item):
    def __init__(self, val: int, pad_val: int, text_loc: TextLocation):
        super().__init__(text_loc)
        self._val = val
        self._pad_val = pad_val

    # Alignment value (bits).
    @property
    def val(self):
        return self._val

    # Padding byte value.
    @property
    def pad_val(self):
        return self._pad_val

    def __repr__(self):
        return "_AlignOffset({}, {}, {})".format(
            repr(self._val), repr(self._pad_val), repr(self._text_loc)
        )


# Mixin of containing an AST expression and its string.
class _ExprMixin:
    def __init__(self, expr_str: str, expr: ast.Expression):
        self._expr_str = expr_str
        self._expr = expr

    # Expression string.
    @property
    def expr_str(self):
        return self._expr_str

    # Expression node to evaluate.
    @property
    def expr(self):
        return self._expr


# Fill until some offset.
class _FillUntil(_Item, _ExprMixin):
    def __init__(
        self, expr_str: str, expr: ast.Expression, pad_val: int, text_loc: TextLocation
    ):
        super().__init__(text_loc)
        _ExprMixin.__init__(self, expr_str, expr)
        self._pad_val = pad_val

    # Padding byte value.
    @property
    def pad_val(self):
        return self._pad_val

    def __repr__(self):
        return "_FillUntil({}, {}, {}, {})".format(
            repr(self._expr_str),
            repr(self._expr),
            repr(self._pad_val),
            repr(self._text_loc),
        )


# Variable assignment.
class _VarAssign(_Item, _ExprMixin):
    def __init__(
        self, name: str, expr_str: str, expr: ast.Expression, text_loc: TextLocation
    ):
        super().__init__(text_loc)
        _ExprMixin.__init__(self, expr_str, expr)
        self._name = name

    # Name.
    @property
    def name(self):
        return self._name

    def __repr__(self):
        return "_VarAssign({}, {}, {}, {})".format(
            repr(self._name),
            repr(self._expr_str),
            repr(self._expr),
            repr(self._text_loc),
        )


# Fixed-length number, possibly needing more than one byte.
class _FlNum(_ScalarItem, _RepableItem, _ExprMixin):
    def __init__(
        self, expr_str: str, expr: ast.Expression, len: int, text_loc: TextLocation
    ):
        super().__init__(text_loc)
        _ExprMixin.__init__(self, expr_str, expr)
        self._len = len

    # Length (bits).
    @property
    def len(self):
        return self._len

    @property
    def size(self):
        return self._len // 8

    def __repr__(self):
        return "_FlNum({}, {}, {}, {})".format(
            repr(self._expr_str),
            repr(self._expr),
            repr(self._len),
            repr(self._text_loc),
        )


# LEB128 integer.
class _Leb128Int(_Item, _RepableItem, _ExprMixin):
    def __init__(self, expr_str: str, expr: ast.Expression, text_loc: TextLocation):
        super().__init__(text_loc)
        _ExprMixin.__init__(self, expr_str, expr)

    def __repr__(self):
        return "{}({}, {}, {})".format(
            self.__class__.__name__,
            repr(self._expr_str),
            repr(self._expr),
            repr(self._text_loc),
        )


# Unsigned LEB128 integer.
class _ULeb128Int(_Leb128Int, _RepableItem, _ExprMixin):
    pass


# Signed LEB128 integer.
class _SLeb128Int(_Leb128Int, _RepableItem, _ExprMixin):
    pass


# String.
class _Str(_Item, _RepableItem, _ExprMixin):
    def __init__(
        self, expr_str: str, expr: ast.Expression, codec: str, text_loc: TextLocation
    ):
        super().__init__(text_loc)
        _ExprMixin.__init__(self, expr_str, expr)
        self._codec = codec

    # Codec name.
    @property
    def codec(self):
        return self._codec

    def __repr__(self):
        return "_Str({}, {}, {}, {})".format(
            self.__class__.__name__,
            repr(self._expr_str),
            repr(self._expr),
            repr(self._codec),
            repr(self._text_loc),
        )


# Group of items.
class _Group(_Item, _RepableItem):
    def __init__(self, items: List[_Item], text_loc: TextLocation):
        super().__init__(text_loc)
        self._items = items

    # Contained items.
    @property
    def items(self):
        return self._items

    def __repr__(self):
        return "_Group({}, {})".format(repr(self._items), repr(self._text_loc))


# Repetition item.
class _Rep(_Item, _ExprMixin):
    def __init__(
        self, item: _Item, expr_str: str, expr: ast.Expression, text_loc: TextLocation
    ):
        super().__init__(text_loc)
        _ExprMixin.__init__(self, expr_str, expr)
        self._item = item

    # Item to repeat.
    @property
    def item(self):
        return self._item

    def __repr__(self):
        return "_Rep({}, {}, {}, {})".format(
            repr(self._item),
            repr(self._expr_str),
            repr(self._expr),
            repr(self._text_loc),
        )


# Conditional item.
class _Cond(_Item, _ExprMixin):
    def __init__(
        self,
        true_item: _Item,
        false_item: _Item,
        expr_str: str,
        expr: ast.Expression,
        text_loc: TextLocation,
    ):
        super().__init__(text_loc)
        _ExprMixin.__init__(self, expr_str, expr)
        self._true_item = true_item
        self._false_item = false_item

    # Item when condition is true.
    @property
    def true_item(self):
        return self._true_item

    # Item when condition is false.
    @property
    def false_item(self):
        return self._false_item

    def __repr__(self):
        return "_Cond({}, {}, {}, {}, {})".format(
            repr(self._true_item),
            repr(self._false_item),
            repr(self._expr_str),
            repr(self._expr),
            repr(self._text_loc),
        )


# Macro definition item.
class _MacroDef(_Item):
    def __init__(
        self, name: str, param_names: List[str], group: _Group, text_loc: TextLocation
    ):
        super().__init__(text_loc)
        self._name = name
        self._param_names = param_names
        self._group = group

    # Name.
    @property
    def name(self):
        return self._name

    # Parameters.
    @property
    def param_names(self):
        return self._param_names

    # Contained items.
    @property
    def group(self):
        return self._group

    def __repr__(self):
        return "_MacroDef({}, {}, {}, {})".format(
            repr(self._name),
            repr(self._param_names),
            repr(self._group),
            repr(self._text_loc),
        )


# Macro expansion parameter.
class _MacroExpParam:
    def __init__(self, expr_str: str, expr: ast.Expression, text_loc: TextLocation):
        self._expr_str = expr_str
        self._expr = expr
        self._text_loc = text_loc

    # Expression string.
    @property
    def expr_str(self):
        return self._expr_str

    # Expression.
    @property
    def expr(self):
        return self._expr

    # Source text location.
    @property
    def text_loc(self):
        return self._text_loc

    def __repr__(self):
        return "_MacroExpParam({}, {}, {})".format(
            repr(self._expr_str), repr(self._expr), repr(self._text_loc)
        )


# Macro expansion item.
class _MacroExp(_Item, _RepableItem):
    def __init__(
        self,
        name: str,
        params: List[_MacroExpParam],
        text_loc: TextLocation,
    ):
        super().__init__(text_loc)
        self._name = name
        self._params = params

    # Name.
    @property
    def name(self):
        return self._name

    # Parameters.
    @property
    def params(self):
        return self._params

    def __repr__(self):
        return "_MacroExp({}, {}, {})".format(
            repr(self._name),
            repr(self._params),
            repr(self._text_loc),
        )


# A parsing error message: a string and a text location.
class ParseErrorMessage:
    @classmethod
    def _create(cls, text: str, text_loc: TextLocation):
        self = cls.__new__(cls)
        self._init(text, text_loc)
        return self

    def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):  # type: ignore
        raise NotImplementedError

    def _init(self, text: str, text_loc: TextLocation):
        self._text = text
        self._text_loc = text_loc

    # Message text.
    @property
    def text(self):
        return self._text

    # Source text location.
    @property
    def text_location(self):
        return self._text_loc


# A parsing error containing one or more messages (`ParseErrorMessage`).
class ParseError(RuntimeError):
    @classmethod
    def _create(cls, msg: str, text_loc: TextLocation):
        self = cls.__new__(cls)
        self._init(msg, text_loc)
        return self

    def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):  # type: ignore
        raise NotImplementedError

    def _init(self, msg: str, text_loc: TextLocation):
        super().__init__(msg)
        self._msgs = []  # type: List[ParseErrorMessage]
        self._add_msg(msg, text_loc)

    def _add_msg(self, msg: str, text_loc: TextLocation):
        self._msgs.append(
            ParseErrorMessage._create(  # pyright: ignore[reportPrivateUsage]
                msg, text_loc
            )
        )

    # Parsing error messages.
    #
    # The first message is the most specific one.
    @property
    def messages(self):
        return self._msgs


# Raises a parsing error, forwarding the parameters to the constructor.
def _raise_error(msg: str, text_loc: TextLocation) -> NoReturn:
    raise ParseError._create(msg, text_loc)  # pyright: ignore[reportPrivateUsage]


# Adds a message to the parsing error `exc`.
def _add_error_msg(exc: ParseError, msg: str, text_loc: TextLocation):
    exc._add_msg(msg, text_loc)  # pyright: ignore[reportPrivateUsage]


# Appends a message to the parsing error `exc` and reraises it.
def _augment_error(exc: ParseError, msg: str, text_loc: TextLocation) -> NoReturn:
    _add_error_msg(exc, msg, text_loc)
    raise exc


# Returns a normalized version (so as to be parseable by int()) of
# the constant integer string `s`, possibly negative, dealing with
# any radix suffix.
def _norm_const_int(s: str):
    neg = ""
    pos = s

    if s.startswith("-"):
        neg = "-"
        pos = s[1:]

    for r in "xXoObB":
        if pos.startswith("0" + r):
            # Already correct
            return s

    # Try suffix
    asm_suf_base = {
        "h": "x",
        "H": "x",
        "q": "o",
        "Q": "o",
        "o": "o",
        "O": "o",
        "b": "b",
        "B": "B",
    }

    for suf in asm_suf_base:
        if pos[-1] == suf:
            s = "{}0{}{}".format(neg, asm_suf_base[suf], pos.rstrip(suf))

    return s


# Encodes the string `s` using the codec `codec`, raising `ParseError`
# with `text_loc` on encoding error.
def _encode_str(s: str, codec: str, text_loc: TextLocation):
    try:
        return s.encode(codec)
    except UnicodeEncodeError:
        _raise_error(
            "Cannot encode `{}` with the `{}` encoding".format(s, codec), text_loc
        )


# Variables dictionary type (for type hints).
VariablesT = Dict[str, Union[int, float, str]]


# Labels dictionary type (for type hints).
LabelsT = Dict[str, int]


# Common patterns.
_py_name_pat = re.compile(r"[a-zA-Z_][a-zA-Z0-9_]*")
_pos_const_int_pat = re.compile(
    r"(?:0[Xx][A-Fa-f0-9]+|0[Oo][0-7]+|0[Bb][01]+|[A-Fa-f0-9]+[hH]|[0-7]+[qQoO]|[01]+[bB]|\d+)\b"
)
_const_int_pat = re.compile(r"(?P<neg>-)?(?:{})".format(_pos_const_int_pat.pattern))
_const_float_pat = re.compile(
    r"[-+]?(?:(?:\d*\.\d+)|(?:\d+\.))(?:[Ee][+-]?\d+)?(?=\W|)"
)


# Macro definition dictionary.
_MacroDefsT = Dict[str, _MacroDef]


# Normand parser.
#
# The constructor accepts a Normand input. After building, use the `res`
# property to get the resulting main group.
class _Parser:
    # Builds a parser to parse the Normand input `normand`, parsing
    # immediately.
    def __init__(self, normand: str, variables: VariablesT, labels: LabelsT):
        self._normand = normand
        self._at = 0
        self._line_no = 1
        self._col_no = 1
        self._label_names = set(labels.keys())
        self._var_names = set(variables.keys())
        self._macro_defs = {}  # type: _MacroDefsT
        self._parse()

    # Result (main group).
    @property
    def res(self):
        return self._res

    # Macro definitions.
    @property
    def macro_defs(self):
        return self._macro_defs

    # Current text location.
    @property
    def _text_loc(self):
        return TextLocation._create(  # pyright: ignore[reportPrivateUsage]
            self._line_no, self._col_no
        )

    # Returns `True` if this parser is done parsing.
    def _is_done(self):
        return self._at == len(self._normand)

    # Returns `True` if this parser isn't done parsing.
    def _isnt_done(self):
        return not self._is_done()

    # Raises a parse error, creating it using the message `msg` and the
    # current text location.
    def _raise_error(self, msg: str) -> NoReturn:
        _raise_error(msg, self._text_loc)

    # Tries to make the pattern `pat` match the current substring,
    # returning the match object and updating `self._at`,
    # `self._line_no`, and `self._col_no` on success.
    def _try_parse_pat(self, pat: Pattern[str]):
        m = pat.match(self._normand, self._at)

        if m is None:
            return

        # Skip matched string
        self._at += len(m.group(0))

        # Update line number
        self._line_no += m.group(0).count("\n")

        # Update column number
        for i in reversed(range(self._at)):
            if self._normand[i] == "\n" or i == 0:
                if i == 0:
                    self._col_no = self._at + 1
                else:
                    self._col_no = self._at - i

                break

        # Return match object
        return m

    # Expects the pattern `pat` to match the current substring,
    # returning the match object and updating `self._at`,
    # `self._line_no`, and `self._col_no` on success, or raising a parse
    # error with the message `error_msg` on error.
    def _expect_pat(self, pat: Pattern[str], error_msg: str):
        # Match
        m = self._try_parse_pat(pat)

        if m is None:
            # No match: error
            self._raise_error(error_msg)

        # Return match object
        return m

    # Pattern for _skip_ws_and_comments()
    _ws_or_syms_or_comments_pat = re.compile(
        r"(?:[\s/\\?&:;.,[\]_=|-]|#[^#]*?(?:\n|#))*"
    )

    # Skips as many whitespaces, insignificant symbol characters, and
    # comments as possible.
    def _skip_ws_and_comments(self):
        self._try_parse_pat(self._ws_or_syms_or_comments_pat)

    # Pattern for _skip_ws()
    _ws_pat = re.compile(r"\s*")

    # Skips as many whitespaces as possible.
    def _skip_ws(self):
        self._try_parse_pat(self._ws_pat)

    # Pattern for _try_parse_hex_byte()
    _nibble_pat = re.compile(r"[A-Fa-f0-9]")

    # Tries to parse a hexadecimal byte, returning a byte item on
    # success.
    def _try_parse_hex_byte(self):
        begin_text_loc = self._text_loc

        # Match initial nibble
        m_high = self._try_parse_pat(self._nibble_pat)

        if m_high is None:
            # No match
            return

        # Expect another nibble
        self._skip_ws_and_comments()
        m_low = self._expect_pat(
            self._nibble_pat, "Expecting another hexadecimal nibble"
        )

        # Return item
        return _Byte(int(m_high.group(0) + m_low.group(0), 16), begin_text_loc)

    # Patterns for _try_parse_bin_byte()
    _bin_byte_bit_pat = re.compile(r"[01]")
    _bin_byte_prefix_pat = re.compile(r"%+")

    # Tries to parse a binary byte, returning a byte item on success.
    def _try_parse_bin_byte(self):
        begin_text_loc = self._text_loc

        # Match prefix
        m = self._try_parse_pat(self._bin_byte_prefix_pat)

        if m is None:
            # No match
            return

        # Expect as many bytes as there are `%` prefixes
        items = []  # type: List[_Item]

        for _ in range(len(m.group(0))):
            self._skip_ws_and_comments()
            byte_text_loc = self._text_loc
            bits = []  # type: List[str]

            # Expect eight bits
            for _ in range(8):
                self._skip_ws_and_comments()
                m = self._expect_pat(
                    self._bin_byte_bit_pat, "Expecting a bit (`0` or `1`)"
                )
                bits.append(m.group(0))

            items.append(_Byte(int("".join(bits), 2), byte_text_loc))

        # Return item
        if len(items) == 1:
            return items[0]

        # As group
        return _Group(items, begin_text_loc)

    # Patterns for _try_parse_dec_byte()
    _dec_byte_prefix_pat = re.compile(r"\$")
    _dec_byte_val_pat = re.compile(r"(?P<neg>-?)(?P<val>\d+)")

    # Tries to parse a decimal byte, returning a byte item on success.
    def _try_parse_dec_byte(self):
        begin_text_loc = self._text_loc

        # Match prefix
        if self._try_parse_pat(self._dec_byte_prefix_pat) is None:
            # No match
            return

        # Expect the value
        self._skip_ws()
        m = self._expect_pat(self._dec_byte_val_pat, "Expecting a decimal constant")

        # Compute value
        val = int(m.group("val")) * (-1 if m.group("neg") == "-" else 1)

        # Validate
        if val < -128 or val > 255:
            _raise_error("Invalid decimal byte value {}".format(val), begin_text_loc)

        # Two's complement
        val %= 256

        # Return item
        return _Byte(val, begin_text_loc)

    # Tries to parse a byte, returning a byte item on success.
    def _try_parse_byte(self):
        # Hexadecimal
        item = self._try_parse_hex_byte()

        if item is not None:
            return item

        # Binary
        item = self._try_parse_bin_byte()

        if item is not None:
            return item

        # Decimal
        item = self._try_parse_dec_byte()

        if item is not None:
            return item

    # Strings corresponding to escape sequence characters
    _lit_str_escape_seq_strs = {
        "0": "\0",
        "a": "\a",
        "b": "\b",
        "e": "\x1b",
        "f": "\f",
        "n": "\n",
        "r": "\r",
        "t": "\t",
        "v": "\v",
        "\\": "\\",
        '"': '"',
    }

    # Patterns for _try_parse_lit_str()
    _lit_str_prefix_suffix_pat = re.compile(r'"')
    _lit_str_contents_pat = re.compile(r'(?:(?:\\.)|[^"])*')

    # Parses a literal string between double quotes (without an encoding
    # prefix) and returns the resulting string.
    def _try_parse_lit_str(self, with_prefix: bool):
        # Match prefix if needed
        if with_prefix:
            if self._try_parse_pat(self._lit_str_prefix_suffix_pat) is None:
                # No match
                return

        # Expect literal string
        m = self._expect_pat(self._lit_str_contents_pat, "Expecting a literal string")

        # Expect end of string
        self._expect_pat(
            self._lit_str_prefix_suffix_pat, 'Expecting `"` (end of literal string)'
        )

        # Replace escape sequences
        val = m.group(0)

        for ec in '0abefnrtv"\\':
            val = val.replace(r"\{}".format(ec), self._lit_str_escape_seq_strs[ec])

        # Return string
        return val

    # Patterns for _try_parse_utf_str_encoding()
    _str_encoding_utf_prefix_pat = re.compile(r"u")
    _str_encoding_utf_pat = re.compile(r"(?:8|(?:(?:16|32)(?:[bl]e)))\b")

    # Tries to parse a UTF encoding specification, returning the Python
    # codec name on success.
    def _try_parse_utf_str_encoding(self):
        # Match prefix
        if self._try_parse_pat(self._str_encoding_utf_prefix_pat) is None:
            # No match
            return

        # Expect UTF specification
        m = self._expect_pat(
            self._str_encoding_utf_pat,
            "Expecting `8`, `16be`, `16le`, `32be` or `32le`",
        )

        # Convert to codec name
        return {
            "8": "utf_8",
            "16be": "utf_16_be",
            "16le": "utf_16_le",
            "32be": "utf_32_be",
            "32le": "utf_32_le",
        }[m.group(0)]

    # Patterns for _try_parse_str_encoding()
    _str_encoding_gen_prefix_pat = re.compile(r"s")
    _str_encoding_colon_pat = re.compile(r":")
    _str_encoding_non_utf_pat = re.compile(r"latin(?:[1-9]|10)\b")

    # Tries to parse a string encoding specification, returning the
    # Python codec name on success.
    #
    # Requires the general prefix (`s:`) if `req_gen_prefix` is `True`.
    def _try_parse_str_encoding(self, req_gen_prefix: bool = False):
        # General prefix?
        if self._try_parse_pat(self._str_encoding_gen_prefix_pat) is not None:
            # Expect `:`
            self._skip_ws()
            self._expect_pat(self._str_encoding_colon_pat, "Expecting `:`")

            # Expect encoding specification
            self._skip_ws()

            # UTF?
            codec = self._try_parse_utf_str_encoding()

            if codec is not None:
                return codec

            # Expect Latin
            m = self._expect_pat(
                self._str_encoding_non_utf_pat,
                "Expecting `u8`, `u16be`, `u16le`, `u32be`, `u32le`, or `latin1` to `latin10`",
            )
            return m.group(0)

        # UTF?
        if not req_gen_prefix:
            return self._try_parse_utf_str_encoding()

    # Patterns for _try_parse_str()
    _lit_str_prefix_pat = re.compile(r'"')
    _str_prefix_pat = re.compile(r'"|\{')
    _str_expr_pat = re.compile(r"[^}]+")
    _str_expr_suffix_pat = re.compile(r"\}")

    # Tries to parse a string, returning a literal string or string item
    # on success.
    def _try_parse_str(self):
        begin_text_loc = self._text_loc

        # Encoding
        codec = self._try_parse_str_encoding()

        # Match prefix (expect if there's an encoding specification)
        self._skip_ws()

        if codec is None:
            # No encoding: only a literal string (UTF-8) is legal
            m_prefix = self._try_parse_pat(self._lit_str_prefix_pat)

            if m_prefix is None:
                return
        else:
            # Encoding present: expect a string prefix
            m_prefix = self._expect_pat(self._str_prefix_pat, 'Expecting `"` or `{`')

        # Literal string or expression?
        prefix = m_prefix.group(0)

        if prefix == '"':
            # Expect literal string
            str_text_loc = self._text_loc
            val = self._try_parse_lit_str(False)

            if val is None:
                self._raise_error("Expecting a literal string")

            # Encode string
            data = _encode_str(val, "utf_8" if codec is None else codec, str_text_loc)

            # Return item
            return _LitStr(data, begin_text_loc)
        else:
            # Expect expression
            self._skip_ws()
            expr_text_loc = self._text_loc
            m = self._expect_pat(self._str_expr_pat, "Expecting an expression")

            # Expect `}`
            self._expect_pat(self._str_expr_suffix_pat, "Expecting `}`")

            # Create an expression node from the expression string
            expr_str, expr = self._ast_expr_from_str(m.group(0), expr_text_loc)

            # Return item
            assert codec is not None
            return _Str(expr_str, expr, codec, begin_text_loc)

    # Common right parenthesis pattern
    _right_paren_pat = re.compile(r"\)")

    # Patterns for _try_parse_group()
    _group_prefix_pat = re.compile(r"\(|!g(?:roup)?\b")

    # Tries to parse a group, returning a group item on success.
    def _try_parse_group(self):
        begin_text_loc = self._text_loc

        # Match prefix
        m_open = self._try_parse_pat(self._group_prefix_pat)

        if m_open is None:
            # No match
            return

        # Parse items
        items = self._parse_items()

        # Expect end of group
        self._skip_ws_and_comments()

        if m_open.group(0) == "(":
            pat = self._right_paren_pat
            exp = ")"
        else:
            pat = self._block_end_pat
            exp = "!end"

        self._expect_pat(pat, "Expecting an item or `{}` (end of group)".format(exp))

        # Return item
        return _Group(items, begin_text_loc)

    # Returns a stripped expression string and an AST expression node
    # from the expression string `expr_str` at text location `text_loc`.
    def _ast_expr_from_str(self, expr_str: str, text_loc: TextLocation):
        # Create an expression node from the expression string
        expr_str = expr_str.strip().replace("\n", " ")

        try:
            expr = ast.parse(expr_str, mode="eval")
        except SyntaxError:
            _raise_error(
                "Invalid expression `{}`: invalid syntax".format(expr_str),
                text_loc,
            )

        return expr_str, expr

    # Patterns for _try_parse_val()
    _val_expr_pat = re.compile(r"([^}:]+):\s*")
    _fl_num_len_fmt_pat = re.compile(r"8|16|24|32|40|48|56|64")
    _leb128_int_fmt_pat = re.compile(r"(u|s)leb128")

    # Tries to parse a value (number or string) and format (fixed length
    # in bits, `uleb128`, `sleb128`, or `s:` followed with an encoding
    # name), returning an item on success.
    def _try_parse_val(self):
        begin_text_loc = self._text_loc

        # Match
        m_expr = self._try_parse_pat(self._val_expr_pat)

        if m_expr is None:
            # No match
            return

        # Create an expression node from the expression string
        expr_str, expr = self._ast_expr_from_str(m_expr.group(1), begin_text_loc)

        # Fixed length?
        m_fmt = self._try_parse_pat(self._fl_num_len_fmt_pat)

        if m_fmt is None:
            # LEB128?
            m_fmt = self._try_parse_pat(self._leb128_int_fmt_pat)

            if m_fmt is None:
                # String encoding?
                codec = self._try_parse_str_encoding(True)

                if codec is None:
                    # At this point it's invalid
                    self._raise_error(
                        "Expecting a fixed length (multiple of eight bits), `uleb128`, `sleb128`, or `s:` followed with a valid encoding (`u8`, `u16be`, `u16le`, `u32be`, `u32le`, or `latin1` to `latin10`)"
                    )
                else:
                    # Return string item
                    return _Str(expr_str, expr, codec, begin_text_loc)

            # Return LEB128 integer item
            cls = _ULeb128Int if m_fmt.group(1) == "u" else _SLeb128Int
            return cls(expr_str, expr, begin_text_loc)
        else:
            # Return fixed-length number item
            return _FlNum(
                expr_str,
                expr,
                int(m_fmt.group(0)),
                begin_text_loc,
            )

    # Patterns for _try_parse_var_assign()
    _var_assign_name_equal_pat = re.compile(
        r"({})\s*=(?!=)".format(_py_name_pat.pattern)
    )
    _var_assign_expr_pat = re.compile(r"[^}]+")

    # Tries to parse a variable assignment, returning a variable
    # assignment item on success.
    def _try_parse_var_assign(self):
        begin_text_loc = self._text_loc

        # Match
        m = self._try_parse_pat(self._var_assign_name_equal_pat)

        if m is None:
            # No match
            return

        # Validate name
        name = m.group(1)

        if name == _icitte_name:
            _raise_error(
                "`{}` is a reserved variable name".format(_icitte_name), begin_text_loc
            )

        if name in self._label_names:
            _raise_error("Existing label named `{}`".format(name), begin_text_loc)

        # Expect an expression
        self._skip_ws()
        m = self._expect_pat(self._var_assign_expr_pat, "Expecting an expression")

        # Create an expression node from the expression string
        expr_str, expr = self._ast_expr_from_str(m.group(0), begin_text_loc)

        # Add to known variable names
        self._var_names.add(name)

        # Return item
        return _VarAssign(
            name,
            expr_str,
            expr,
            begin_text_loc,
        )

    # Pattern for _try_parse_set_bo()
    _bo_pat = re.compile(r"[bl]e")

    # Tries to parse a byte order name, returning a byte order setting
    # item on success.
    def _try_parse_set_bo(self):
        begin_text_loc = self._text_loc

        # Match
        m = self._try_parse_pat(self._bo_pat)

        if m is None:
            # No match
            return

        # Return corresponding item
        if m.group(0) == "be":
            return _SetBo(ByteOrder.BE, begin_text_loc)
        else:
            assert m.group(0) == "le"
            return _SetBo(ByteOrder.LE, begin_text_loc)

    # Patterns for _try_parse_val_or_bo()
    _val_var_assign_set_bo_prefix_pat = re.compile(r"\{")
    _val_var_assign_set_bo_suffix_pat = re.compile(r"\}")

    # Tries to parse a value, a variable assignment, or a byte order
    # setting, returning an item on success.
    def _try_parse_val_or_var_assign_or_set_bo(self):
        # Match prefix
        if self._try_parse_pat(self._val_var_assign_set_bo_prefix_pat) is None:
            # No match
            return

        self._skip_ws()

        # Variable assignment item?
        item = self._try_parse_var_assign()

        if item is None:
            # Value item?
            item = self._try_parse_val()

            if item is None:
                # Byte order setting item?
                item = self._try_parse_set_bo()

                if item is None:
                    # At this point it's invalid
                    self._raise_error(
                        "Expecting a fixed-length number, a string, a variable assignment, or a byte order setting"
                    )

        # Expect suffix
        self._skip_ws()
        self._expect_pat(self._val_var_assign_set_bo_suffix_pat, "Expecting `}`")
        return item

    # Tries to parse an offset setting value (after the initial `<`),
    # returning an offset item on success.
    def _try_parse_set_offset_val(self):
        begin_text_loc = self._text_loc

        # Match
        m = self._try_parse_pat(_pos_const_int_pat)

        if m is None:
            # No match
            return

        # Return item
        return _SetOffset(int(_norm_const_int(m.group(0)), 0), begin_text_loc)

    # Tries to parse a label name (after the initial `<`), returning a
    # label item on success.
    def _try_parse_label_name(self):
        begin_text_loc = self._text_loc

        # Match
        m = self._try_parse_pat(_py_name_pat)

        if m is None:
            # No match
            return

        # Validate
        name = m.group(0)

        if name == _icitte_name:
            _raise_error(
                "`{}` is a reserved label name".format(_icitte_name), begin_text_loc
            )

        if name in self._label_names:
            _raise_error("Duplicate label name `{}`".format(name), begin_text_loc)

        if name in self._var_names:
            _raise_error("Existing variable named `{}`".format(name), begin_text_loc)

        # Add to known label names
        self._label_names.add(name)

        # Return item
        return _Label(name, begin_text_loc)

    # Patterns for _try_parse_label_or_set_offset()
    _label_set_offset_prefix_pat = re.compile(r"<")
    _label_set_offset_suffix_pat = re.compile(r">")

    # Tries to parse a label or an offset setting, returning an item on
    # success.
    def _try_parse_label_or_set_offset(self):
        # Match prefix
        if self._try_parse_pat(self._label_set_offset_prefix_pat) is None:
            # No match
            return

        # Offset setting item?
        self._skip_ws()
        item = self._try_parse_set_offset_val()

        if item is None:
            # Label item?
            item = self._try_parse_label_name()

            if item is None:
                # At this point it's invalid
                self._raise_error("Expecting a label name or an offset setting value")

        # Expect suffix
        self._skip_ws()
        self._expect_pat(self._label_set_offset_suffix_pat, "Expecting `>`")
        return item

    # Pattern for _parse_pad_val()
    _pad_val_prefix_pat = re.compile(r"~")

    # Tries to parse a padding value, returning the padding value, or 0
    # if none.
    def _parse_pad_val(self):
        # Padding value?
        self._skip_ws()
        pad_val = 0

        if self._try_parse_pat(self._pad_val_prefix_pat) is not None:
            self._skip_ws()
            pad_val_text_loc = self._text_loc
            m = self._expect_pat(
                _pos_const_int_pat,
                "Expecting a positive constant integer (byte value)",
            )

            # Validate
            pad_val = int(_norm_const_int(m.group(0)), 0)

            if pad_val > 255:
                _raise_error(
                    "Invalid padding byte value {}".format(pad_val),
                    pad_val_text_loc,
                )

        return pad_val

    # Patterns for _try_parse_align_offset()
    _align_offset_prefix_pat = re.compile(r"@")
    _align_offset_val_pat = re.compile(r"\d+")

    # Tries to parse an offset alignment, returning an offset alignment
    # item on success.
    def _try_parse_align_offset(self):
        begin_text_loc = self._text_loc

        # Match prefix
        if self._try_parse_pat(self._align_offset_prefix_pat) is None:
            # No match
            return

        # Expect an alignment
        self._skip_ws()
        align_text_loc = self._text_loc
        m = self._expect_pat(
            self._align_offset_val_pat,
            "Expecting an alignment (positive multiple of eight bits)",
        )

        # Validate alignment
        val = int(m.group(0))

        if val <= 0 or (val % 8) != 0:
            _raise_error(
                "Invalid alignment value {} (not a positive multiple of eight)".format(
                    val
                ),
                align_text_loc,
            )

        # Padding value
        pad_val = self._parse_pad_val()

        # Return item
        return _AlignOffset(val, pad_val, begin_text_loc)

    # Patterns for _expect_expr()
    _inner_expr_prefix_pat = re.compile(r"\{")
    _inner_expr_pat = re.compile(r"[^}]+")
    _inner_expr_suffix_pat = re.compile(r"\}")

    # Parses an expression outside a `{`/`}` context.
    #
    # This function accepts:
    #
    # • A Python expression within `{` and `}`.
    #
    # • A Python name.
    #
    # • If `accept_const_int` is `True`: a constant integer, which may
    #   be negative if `allow_neg_int` is `True`.
    #
    # • If `accept_float` is `True`: a constant floating point number.
    #
    # Returns the stripped expression string and AST expression.
    def _expect_expr(
        self,
        accept_const_int: bool = False,
        allow_neg_int: bool = False,
        accept_const_float: bool = False,
        accept_lit_str: bool = False,
    ):
        begin_text_loc = self._text_loc

        # Constant floating point number?
        if accept_const_float:
            m = self._try_parse_pat(_const_float_pat)

            if m is not None:
                return self._ast_expr_from_str(m.group(0), begin_text_loc)

        # Constant integer?
        if accept_const_int:
            m = self._try_parse_pat(_const_int_pat)

            if m is not None:
                # Negative and allowed?
                if m.group("neg") == "-" and not allow_neg_int:
                    _raise_error(
                        "Expecting a positive constant integer", begin_text_loc
                    )

                expr_str = _norm_const_int(m.group(0))
                return self._ast_expr_from_str(expr_str, begin_text_loc)

        # Name?
        m = self._try_parse_pat(_py_name_pat)

        if m is not None:
            return self._ast_expr_from_str(m.group(0), begin_text_loc)

        # Literal string
        if accept_lit_str:
            val = self._try_parse_lit_str(True)

            if val is not None:
                return self._ast_expr_from_str(repr(val), begin_text_loc)

        # Expect `{`
        msg_accepted_parts = ["a name", "or `{`"]

        if accept_lit_str:
            msg_accepted_parts.insert(0, "a literal string")

        if accept_const_float:
            msg_accepted_parts.insert(0, "a constant floating point number")

        if accept_const_int:
            msg_pos = "" if allow_neg_int else "positive "
            msg_accepted_parts.insert(0, "a {}constant integer".format(msg_pos))

        if len(msg_accepted_parts) == 2:
            msg_accepted = " ".join(msg_accepted_parts)
        else:
            msg_accepted = ", ".join(msg_accepted_parts)

        self._expect_pat(
            self._inner_expr_prefix_pat,
            "Expecting {}".format(msg_accepted),
        )

        # Expect an expression
        self._skip_ws()
        expr_text_loc = self._text_loc
        m = self._expect_pat(self._inner_expr_pat, "Expecting an expression")
        expr_str = m.group(0)

        # Expect `}`
        self._skip_ws()
        self._expect_pat(self._inner_expr_suffix_pat, "Expecting `}`")

        return self._ast_expr_from_str(expr_str, expr_text_loc)

    # Patterns for _try_parse_fill_until()
    _fill_until_prefix_pat = re.compile(r"\+")
    _fill_until_pad_val_prefix_pat = re.compile(r"~")

    # Tries to parse a filling, returning a filling item on success.
    def _try_parse_fill_until(self):
        begin_text_loc = self._text_loc

        # Match prefix
        if self._try_parse_pat(self._fill_until_prefix_pat) is None:
            # No match
            return

        # Expect expression
        self._skip_ws()
        expr_str, expr = self._expect_expr(accept_const_int=True)

        # Padding value
        pad_val = self._parse_pad_val()

        # Return item
        return _FillUntil(expr_str, expr, pad_val, begin_text_loc)

    # Parses the multiplier expression of a repetition (block or
    # post-item) and returns the expression string and AST node.
    def _expect_rep_mul_expr(self):
        return self._expect_expr(accept_const_int=True)

    # Common block end pattern
    _block_end_pat = re.compile(r"!end\b")

    # Pattern for _try_parse_rep_block()
    _rep_block_prefix_pat = re.compile(r"!r(?:epeat)?\b")

    # Tries to parse a repetition block, returning a repetition item on
    # success.
    def _try_parse_rep_block(self):
        begin_text_loc = self._text_loc

        # Match prefix
        if self._try_parse_pat(self._rep_block_prefix_pat) is None:
            # No match
            return

        # Expect expression
        self._skip_ws_and_comments()
        expr_str, expr = self._expect_rep_mul_expr()

        # Parse items
        self._skip_ws_and_comments()
        items_text_loc = self._text_loc
        items = self._parse_items()

        # Expect end of block
        self._skip_ws_and_comments()
        self._expect_pat(
            self._block_end_pat, "Expecting an item or `!end` (end of repetition block)"
        )

        # Return item
        return _Rep(_Group(items, items_text_loc), expr_str, expr, begin_text_loc)

    # Pattern for _try_parse_cond_block()
    _cond_block_prefix_pat = re.compile(r"!if\b")
    _cond_block_else_pat = re.compile(r"!else\b")

    # Tries to parse a conditional block, returning a conditional item
    # on success.
    def _try_parse_cond_block(self):
        begin_text_loc = self._text_loc

        # Match prefix
        if self._try_parse_pat(self._cond_block_prefix_pat) is None:
            # No match
            return

        # Expect expression
        self._skip_ws_and_comments()
        expr_str, expr = self._expect_expr()

        # Parse "true" items
        self._skip_ws_and_comments()
        true_items_text_loc = self._text_loc
        true_items = self._parse_items()
        false_items = []  # type: List[_Item]
        false_items_text_loc = begin_text_loc

        # `!else`?
        self._skip_ws_and_comments()

        if self._try_parse_pat(self._cond_block_else_pat) is not None:
            # Parse "false" items
            self._skip_ws_and_comments()
            false_items_text_loc = self._text_loc
            false_items = self._parse_items()

        # Expect end of block
        self._expect_pat(
            self._block_end_pat,
            "Expecting an item, `!else`, or `!end` (end of conditional block)",
        )

        # Return item
        return _Cond(
            _Group(true_items, true_items_text_loc),
            _Group(false_items, false_items_text_loc),
            expr_str,
            expr,
            begin_text_loc,
        )

    # Common left parenthesis pattern
    _left_paren_pat = re.compile(r"\(")

    # Patterns for _try_parse_macro_def() and _try_parse_macro_exp()
    _macro_params_comma_pat = re.compile(",")

    # Patterns for _try_parse_macro_def()
    _macro_def_prefix_pat = re.compile(r"!m(?:acro)?\b")

    # Tries to parse a macro definition, adding it to `self._macro_defs`
    # and returning `True` on success.
    def _try_parse_macro_def(self):
        begin_text_loc = self._text_loc

        # Match prefix
        if self._try_parse_pat(self._macro_def_prefix_pat) is None:
            # No match
            return False

        # Expect a name
        self._skip_ws()
        name_text_loc = self._text_loc
        m = self._expect_pat(_py_name_pat, "Expecting a valid macro name")

        # Validate name
        name = m.group(0)

        if name in self._macro_defs:
            _raise_error("Duplicate macro named `{}`".format(name), name_text_loc)

        # Expect `(`
        self._skip_ws()
        self._expect_pat(self._left_paren_pat, "Expecting `(`")

        # Try to parse comma-separated parameter names
        param_names = []  # type: List[str]
        expect_comma = False

        while True:
            self._skip_ws()

            # End?
            if self._try_parse_pat(self._right_paren_pat) is not None:
                # End
                break

            # Comma?
            if expect_comma:
                self._expect_pat(self._macro_params_comma_pat, "Expecting `,`")

            # Expect parameter name
            self._skip_ws()
            param_text_loc = self._text_loc
            m = self._expect_pat(_py_name_pat, "Expecting valid parameter name")

            if m.group(0) in param_names:
                _raise_error(
                    "Duplicate macro parameter named `{}`".format(m.group(0)),
                    param_text_loc,
                )

            param_names.append(m.group(0))
            expect_comma = True

        # Expect items
        self._skip_ws_and_comments()
        items_text_loc = self._text_loc
        old_var_names = self._var_names.copy()
        old_label_names = self._label_names.copy()
        self._var_names = set()  # type: Set[str]
        self._label_names = set()  # type: Set[str]
        items = self._parse_items()
        self._var_names = old_var_names
        self._label_names = old_label_names

        # Expect suffix
        self._expect_pat(
            self._block_end_pat, "Expecting an item or `!end` (end of macro block)"
        )

        # Register macro
        self._macro_defs[name] = _MacroDef(
            name, param_names, _Group(items, items_text_loc), begin_text_loc
        )

        return True

    # Patterns for _try_parse_macro_exp()
    _macro_exp_prefix_pat = re.compile(r"m\b")
    _macro_exp_colon_pat = re.compile(r":")

    # Tries to parse a macro expansion, returning a macro expansion item
    # on success.
    def _try_parse_macro_exp(self):
        begin_text_loc = self._text_loc

        # Match prefix
        if self._try_parse_pat(self._macro_exp_prefix_pat) is None:
            # No match
            return

        # Expect `:`
        self._skip_ws()
        self._expect_pat(self._macro_exp_colon_pat, "Expecting `:`")

        # Expect a macro name
        self._skip_ws()
        name_text_loc = self._text_loc
        m = self._expect_pat(_py_name_pat, "Expecting a valid macro name")

        # Validate name
        name = m.group(0)
        macro_def = self._macro_defs.get(name)

        if macro_def is None:
            _raise_error("Unknown macro name `{}`".format(name), name_text_loc)

        # Expect `(`
        self._skip_ws()
        self._expect_pat(self._left_paren_pat, "Expecting `(`")

        # Try to parse comma-separated parameter values
        params_text_loc = self._text_loc
        params = []  # type: List[_MacroExpParam]
        expect_comma = False

        while True:
            self._skip_ws()

            # End?
            if self._try_parse_pat(self._right_paren_pat) is not None:
                # End
                break

            # Expect a value
            if expect_comma:
                self._expect_pat(self._macro_params_comma_pat, "Expecting `,`")

            self._skip_ws()
            param_text_loc = self._text_loc
            params.append(
                _MacroExpParam(
                    *self._expect_expr(
                        accept_const_int=True,
                        allow_neg_int=True,
                        accept_const_float=True,
                        accept_lit_str=True,
                    ),
                    text_loc=param_text_loc
                )
            )
            expect_comma = True

        # Validate parameter values
        if len(params) != len(macro_def.param_names):
            sing_plur = "" if len(params) == 1 else "s"
            _raise_error(
                "Macro expansion passes {} parameter{} while the definition expects {}".format(
                    len(params), sing_plur, len(macro_def.param_names)
                ),
                params_text_loc,
            )

        # Return item
        return _MacroExp(name, params, begin_text_loc)

    # Tries to parse a base item (anything except a repetition),
    # returning it on success.
    def _try_parse_base_item(self):
        # Byte item?
        item = self._try_parse_byte()

        if item is not None:
            return item

        # String item?
        item = self._try_parse_str()

        if item is not None:
            return item

        # Value, variable assignment, or byte order setting item?
        item = self._try_parse_val_or_var_assign_or_set_bo()

        if item is not None:
            return item

        # Label or offset setting item?
        item = self._try_parse_label_or_set_offset()

        if item is not None:
            return item

        # Offset alignment item?
        item = self._try_parse_align_offset()

        if item is not None:
            return item

        # Filling item?
        item = self._try_parse_fill_until()

        if item is not None:
            return item

        # Group item?
        item = self._try_parse_group()

        if item is not None:
            return item

        # Repetition block item?
        item = self._try_parse_rep_block()

        if item is not None:
            return item

        # Conditional block item?
        item = self._try_parse_cond_block()

        if item is not None:
            return item

        # Macro expansion?
        item = self._try_parse_macro_exp()

        if item is not None:
            return item

    # Pattern for _try_parse_rep_post()
    _rep_post_prefix_pat = re.compile(r"\*")

    # Tries to parse a post-item repetition, returning the expression
    # string and AST expression node on success.
    def _try_parse_rep_post(self):
        # Match prefix
        if self._try_parse_pat(self._rep_post_prefix_pat) is None:
            # No match
            return

        # Return expression string and AST expression
        self._skip_ws_and_comments()
        return self._expect_rep_mul_expr()

    # Tries to parse an item, possibly followed by a repetition,
    # returning `True` on success.
    #
    # Appends any parsed item to `items`.
    def _try_append_item(self, items: List[_Item]):
        self._skip_ws_and_comments()

        # Base item
        item = self._try_parse_base_item()

        if item is None:
            return

        # Parse repetition if the base item is repeatable
        if isinstance(item, _RepableItem):
            self._skip_ws_and_comments()
            rep_text_loc = self._text_loc
            rep_ret = self._try_parse_rep_post()

            if rep_ret is not None:
                item = _Rep(item, *rep_ret, text_loc=rep_text_loc)

        items.append(item)
        return True

    # Parses and returns items, skipping whitespaces, insignificant
    # symbols, and comments when allowed, and stopping at the first
    # unknown character.
    #
    # Accepts and registers macro definitions if `accept_macro_defs`
    # is `True`.
    def _parse_items(self, accept_macro_defs: bool = False) -> List[_Item]:
        items = []  # type: List[_Item]

        while self._isnt_done():
            # Try to append item
            if not self._try_append_item(items):
                if accept_macro_defs and self._try_parse_macro_def():
                    continue

                # Unknown at this point
                break

        return items

    # Parses the whole Normand input, setting `self._res` to the main
    # group item on success.
    def _parse(self):
        if len(self._normand.strip()) == 0:
            # Special case to make sure there's something to consume
            self._res = _Group([], self._text_loc)
            return

        # Parse first level items
        items = self._parse_items(True)

        # Make sure there's nothing left
        self._skip_ws_and_comments()

        if self._isnt_done():
            self._raise_error(
                "Unexpected character `{}`".format(self._normand[self._at])
            )

        # Set main group item
        self._res = _Group(items, self._text_loc)


# The return type of parse().
class ParseResult:
    @classmethod
    def _create(
        cls,
        data: bytearray,
        variables: VariablesT,
        labels: LabelsT,
        offset: int,
        bo: Optional[ByteOrder],
    ):
        self = cls.__new__(cls)
        self._init(data, variables, labels, offset, bo)
        return self

    def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):  # type: ignore
        raise NotImplementedError

    def _init(
        self,
        data: bytearray,
        variables: VariablesT,
        labels: LabelsT,
        offset: int,
        bo: Optional[ByteOrder],
    ):
        self._data = data
        self._vars = variables
        self._labels = labels
        self._offset = offset
        self._bo = bo

    # Generated data.
    @property
    def data(self):
        return self._data

    # Dictionary of updated variable names to their last computed value.
    @property
    def variables(self):
        return self._vars

    # Dictionary of updated main group label names to their computed
    # value.
    @property
    def labels(self):
        return self._labels

    # Updated offset.
    @property
    def offset(self):
        return self._offset

    # Updated byte order.
    @property
    def byte_order(self):
        return self._bo


# Raises a parse error for the item `item`, creating it using the
# message `msg`.
def _raise_error_for_item(msg: str, item: _Item) -> NoReturn:
    _raise_error(msg, item.text_loc)


# The `ICITTE` reserved name.
_icitte_name = "ICITTE"


# Base node visitor.
#
# Calls the _visit_name() method for each name node which isn't the name
# of a call.
class _NodeVisitor(ast.NodeVisitor):
    def __init__(self):
        self._parent_is_call = False

    def generic_visit(self, node: ast.AST):
        if type(node) is ast.Call:
            self._parent_is_call = True
        elif type(node) is ast.Name and not self._parent_is_call:
            self._visit_name(node.id)

        super().generic_visit(node)
        self._parent_is_call = False

    @abc.abstractmethod
    def _visit_name(self, name: str):
        ...


# Expression validator: validates that all the names within the
# expression are allowed.
class _ExprValidator(_NodeVisitor):
    def __init__(self, expr_str: str, text_loc: TextLocation, allowed_names: Set[str]):
        super().__init__()
        self._expr_str = expr_str
        self._text_loc = text_loc
        self._allowed_names = allowed_names

    def _visit_name(self, name: str):
        # Make sure the name refers to a known and reachable
        # variable/label name.
        if name != _icitte_name and name not in self._allowed_names:
            msg = "Illegal (unknown or unreachable) variable/label name `{}` in expression `{}`".format(
                name, self._expr_str
            )

            allowed_names = self._allowed_names.copy()
            allowed_names.add(_icitte_name)

            if len(allowed_names) > 0:
                allowed_names_str = ", ".join(
                    sorted(["`{}`".format(name) for name in allowed_names])
                )
                msg += "; the legal names are {{{}}}".format(allowed_names_str)

            _raise_error(
                msg,
                self._text_loc,
            )


# Generator state.
class _GenState:
    def __init__(
        self,
        variables: VariablesT,
        labels: LabelsT,
        offset: int,
        bo: Optional[ByteOrder],
    ):
        self.variables = variables.copy()
        self.labels = labels.copy()
        self.offset = offset
        self.bo = bo

    def __repr__(self):
        return "_GenState({}, {}, {}, {})".format(
            repr(self.variables), repr(self.labels), repr(self.offset), repr(self.bo)
        )


# Fixed-length number item instance.
class _FlNumItemInst:
    def __init__(
        self,
        item: _FlNum,
        offset_in_data: int,
        state: _GenState,
        parse_error_msgs: List[ParseErrorMessage],
    ):
        self._item = item
        self._offset_in_data = offset_in_data
        self._state = state
        self._parse_error_msgs = parse_error_msgs

    @property
    def item(self):
        return self._item

    @property
    def offset_in_data(self):
        return self._offset_in_data

    @property
    def state(self):
        return self._state

    @property
    def parse_error_msgs(self):
        return self._parse_error_msgs


# Generator of data and final state from a group item.
#
# Generation happens in memory at construction time. After building, use
# the `data`, `variables`, `labels`, `offset`, and `bo` properties to
# get the resulting context.
#
# The steps of generation are:
#
# 1. Handle each item in prefix order.
#
#    The handlers append bytes to `self._data` and update some current
#    state object (`_GenState` instance).
#
#    When handling a fixed-length number item, try to evaluate its
#    expression using the current state. If this fails, then it might be
#    because the expression refers to a "future" label: save the current
#    offset in `self._data` (generated data) and a snapshot of the
#    current state within `self._fl_num_item_insts` (`_FlNumItemInst`
#    object). _gen_fl_num_item_insts() will deal with this later. A
#    `_FlNumItemInst` instance also contains a snapshot of the current
#    parsing error messages (`self._parse_error_msgs`) which need to be
#    taken into account when handling the instance later.
#
#    When handling the items of a group, keep a map of immediate label
#    names to their offset. Then, after having processed all the items,
#    update the relevant saved state snapshots in
#    `self._fl_num_item_insts` with those immediate label values.
#    _gen_fl_num_item_insts() will deal with this later.
#
# 2. Handle all the fixed-length number item instances of which the
#    expression evaluation failed before.
#
#    At this point, `self._fl_num_item_insts` contains everything that's
#    needed to evaluate the expressions, including the values of
#    "future" labels from the point of view of some fixed-length number
#    item instance.
#
#    If an evaluation fails at this point, then it's a user error. Add
#    to the parsing error all the saved parsing error messages of the
#    instance. Those additional messages add precious context to the
#    error.
class _Gen:
    def __init__(
        self,
        group: _Group,
        macro_defs: _MacroDefsT,
        variables: VariablesT,
        labels: LabelsT,
        offset: int,
        bo: Optional[ByteOrder],
    ):
        self._macro_defs = macro_defs
        self._fl_num_item_insts = []  # type: List[_FlNumItemInst]
        self._parse_error_msgs = []  # type: List[ParseErrorMessage]
        self._gen(group, _GenState(variables, labels, offset, bo))

    # Generated bytes.
    @property
    def data(self):
        return self._data

    # Updated variables.
    @property
    def variables(self):
        return self._final_state.variables

    # Updated main group labels.
    @property
    def labels(self):
        return self._final_state.labels

    # Updated offset.
    @property
    def offset(self):
        return self._final_state.offset

    # Updated byte order.
    @property
    def bo(self):
        return self._final_state.bo

    # Evaluates the expression `expr` of which the original string is
    # `expr_str` at the location `text_loc` considering the current
    # generation state `state`.
    #
    # If `accept_float` is `True`, then the type of the result may be
    # `float` too.
    #
    # If `accept_str` is `True`, then the type of the result may be
    # `str` too.
    @staticmethod
    def _eval_expr(
        expr_str: str,
        expr: ast.Expression,
        text_loc: TextLocation,
        state: _GenState,
        accept_float: bool = False,
        accept_str: bool = False,
    ):
        syms = {}  # type: VariablesT
        syms.update(state.labels)

        # Set the `ICITTE` name to the current offset
        syms[_icitte_name] = state.offset

        # Add the current variables
        syms.update(state.variables)

        # Validate the node and its children
        _ExprValidator(expr_str, text_loc, set(syms.keys())).visit(expr)

        # Compile and evaluate expression node
        try:
            val = eval(compile(expr, "", "eval"), None, syms)
        except Exception as exc:
            _raise_error(
                "Failed to evaluate expression `{}`: {}".format(expr_str, exc),
                text_loc,
            )

        # Convert `bool` result type to `int` to normalize
        if type(val) is bool:
            val = int(val)

        # Validate result type
        expected_types = {int}  # type: Set[type]

        if accept_float:
            expected_types.add(float)

        if accept_str:
            expected_types.add(str)

        if type(val) not in expected_types:
            expected_types_str = sorted(
                ["`{}`".format(t.__name__) for t in expected_types]
            )

            if len(expected_types_str) == 1:
                msg_expected = expected_types_str[0]
            elif len(expected_types_str) == 2:
                msg_expected = " or ".join(expected_types_str)
            else:
                expected_types_str[-1] = "or {}".format(expected_types_str[-1])
                msg_expected = ", ".join(expected_types_str)

            _raise_error(
                "Invalid expression `{}`: expecting result type {}, not `{}`".format(
                    expr_str, msg_expected, type(val).__name__
                ),
                text_loc,
            )

        return val

    # Forwards to _eval_expr() with the expression and text location of
    # `item`.
    @staticmethod
    def _eval_item_expr(
        item: Union[_Cond, _FillUntil, _FlNum, _Leb128Int, _Rep, _Str, _VarAssign],
        state: _GenState,
        accept_float: bool = False,
        accept_str: bool = False,
    ):
        return _Gen._eval_expr(
            item.expr_str, item.expr, item.text_loc, state, accept_float, accept_str
        )

    # Handles the byte item `item`.
    def _handle_byte_item(self, item: _Byte, state: _GenState):
        self._data.append(item.val)
        state.offset += item.size

    # Handles the literal string item `item`.
    def _handle_lit_str_item(self, item: _LitStr, state: _GenState):
        self._data += item.data
        state.offset += item.size

    # Handles the byte order setting item `item`.
    def _handle_set_bo_item(self, item: _SetBo, state: _GenState):
        # Update current byte order
        state.bo = item.bo

    # Handles the variable assignment item `item`.
    def _handle_var_assign_item(self, item: _VarAssign, state: _GenState):
        # Update variable
        state.variables[item.name] = self._eval_item_expr(
            item, state, accept_float=True, accept_str=True
        )

    # Handles the fixed-length number item `item`.
    def _handle_fl_num_item(self, item: _FlNum, state: _GenState):
        # Validate current byte order
        if state.bo is None and item.len > 8:
            _raise_error_for_item(
                "Current byte order isn't defined at first fixed-length number (`{}`) to encode on more than 8 bits".format(
                    item.expr_str
                ),
                item,
            )

        # Try an immediate evaluation. If it fails, then keep everything
        # needed to (try to) generate the bytes of this item later.
        try:
            data = self._gen_fl_num_item_inst_data(item, state)
        except Exception:
            self._fl_num_item_insts.append(
                _FlNumItemInst(
                    item,
                    len(self._data),
                    copy.deepcopy(state),
                    copy.deepcopy(self._parse_error_msgs),
                )
            )

            # Reserve space in `self._data` for this instance
            data = bytes([0] * (item.len // 8))

        # Append bytes
        self._data += data

        # Update offset
        state.offset += len(data)

    # Returns the size, in bytes, required to encode the value `val`
    # with LEB128 (signed version if `is_signed` is `True`).
    @staticmethod
    def _leb128_size_for_val(val: int, is_signed: bool):
        if val < 0:
            # Equivalent upper bound.
            #
            # For example, if `val` is -128, then the full integer for
            # this number of bits would be [-128, 127].
            val = -val - 1

        # Number of bits (add one for the sign if needed)
        bits = val.bit_length() + int(is_signed)

        if bits == 0:
            bits = 1

        # Seven bits per byte
        return math.ceil(bits / 7)

    # Handles the LEB128 integer item `item`.
    def _handle_leb128_int_item(self, item: _Leb128Int, state: _GenState):
        # Compute value
        val = self._eval_item_expr(item, state)

        # Size in bytes
        size = self._leb128_size_for_val(val, type(item) is _SLeb128Int)

        # For each byte
        for _ in range(size):
            # Seven LSBs, MSB of the byte set (continue)
            self._data.append((val & 0x7F) | 0x80)
            val >>= 7

        # Clear MSB of last byte (stop)
        self._data[-1] &= ~0x80

        # Update offset
        state.offset += size

    # Handles the string item `item`.
    def _handle_str_item(self, item: _Str, state: _GenState):
        # Compute value
        val = str(self._eval_item_expr(item, state, accept_float=True, accept_str=True))

        # Encode
        data = _encode_str(val, item.codec, item.text_loc)

        # Add to data
        self._data += data

        # Update offset
        state.offset += len(data)

    # Handles the group item `item`, removing the immediate labels from
    # `state` at the end if `remove_immediate_labels` is `True`.
    def _handle_group_item(
        self, item: _Group, state: _GenState, remove_immediate_labels: bool = True
    ):
        first_fl_num_item_inst_index = len(self._fl_num_item_insts)
        immediate_labels = {}  # type: LabelsT

        # Handle each item
        for subitem in item.items:
            if type(subitem) is _Label:
                # Add to local immediate labels
                immediate_labels[subitem.name] = state.offset

            self._handle_item(subitem, state)

        # Remove immediate labels from current state if needed
        if remove_immediate_labels:
            for name in immediate_labels:
                del state.labels[name]

        # Add all immediate labels to all state snapshots since
        # `first_fl_num_item_inst_index`.
        for inst in self._fl_num_item_insts[first_fl_num_item_inst_index:]:
            inst.state.labels.update(immediate_labels)

    # Handles the repetition item `item`.
    def _handle_rep_item(self, item: _Rep, state: _GenState):
        # Compute the repetition count
        mul = _Gen._eval_item_expr(item, state)

        # Validate result
        if mul < 0:
            _raise_error_for_item(
                "Invalid expression `{}`: unexpected negative result {:,}".format(
                    item.expr_str, mul
                ),
                item,
            )

        # Generate item data `mul` times
        for _ in range(mul):
            self._handle_item(item.item, state)

    # Handles the conditional item `item`.
    def _handle_cond_item(self, item: _Cond, state: _GenState):
        # Compute the conditional value
        val = _Gen._eval_item_expr(item, state)

        # Generate item data if needed
        if val:
            self._handle_item(item.true_item, state)
        else:
            self._handle_item(item.false_item, state)

    # Evaluates the parameters of the macro expansion item `item`
    # considering the initial state `init_state` and returns a new state
    # to handle the items of the macro.
    def _eval_macro_exp_params(self, item: _MacroExp, init_state: _GenState):
        # New state
        exp_state = _GenState({}, {}, init_state.offset, init_state.bo)

        # Evaluate the parameter expressions
        macro_def = self._macro_defs[item.name]

        for param_name, param in zip(macro_def.param_names, item.params):
            exp_state.variables[param_name] = _Gen._eval_expr(
                param.expr_str,
                param.expr,
                param.text_loc,
                init_state,
                accept_float=True,
                accept_str=True,
            )

        return exp_state

    # Handles the macro expansion item `item`.
    def _handle_macro_exp_item(self, item: _MacroExp, state: _GenState):
        parse_error_msg_text = "While expanding the macro `{}`:".format(item.name)

        try:
            # New state
            exp_state = self._eval_macro_exp_params(item, state)

            # Process the contained group
            init_data_size = len(self._data)
            parse_error_msg = (
                ParseErrorMessage._create(  # pyright: ignore[reportPrivateUsage]
                    parse_error_msg_text, item.text_loc
                )
            )
            self._parse_error_msgs.append(parse_error_msg)
            self._handle_item(self._macro_defs[item.name].group, exp_state)
            self._parse_error_msgs.pop()
        except ParseError as exc:
            _augment_error(exc, parse_error_msg_text, item.text_loc)

        # Update state offset and return
        state.offset += len(self._data) - init_data_size

    # Handles the offset setting item `item`.
    def _handle_set_offset_item(self, item: _SetOffset, state: _GenState):
        state.offset = item.val

    # Handles the offset alignment item `item` (adds padding).
    def _handle_align_offset_item(self, item: _AlignOffset, state: _GenState):
        init_offset = state.offset
        align_bytes = item.val // 8
        state.offset = (state.offset + align_bytes - 1) // align_bytes * align_bytes
        self._data += bytes([item.pad_val] * (state.offset - init_offset))

    # Handles the filling item `item` (adds padding).
    def _handle_fill_until_item(self, item: _FillUntil, state: _GenState):
        # Compute the new offset
        new_offset = _Gen._eval_item_expr(item, state)

        # Validate the new offset
        if new_offset < state.offset:
            _raise_error_for_item(
                "Invalid expression `{}`: new offset {:,} is less than current offset {:,}".format(
                    item.expr_str, new_offset, state.offset
                ),
                item,
            )

        # Fill
        self._data += bytes([item.pad_val] * (new_offset - state.offset))

        # Update offset
        state.offset = new_offset

    # Handles the label item `item`.
    def _handle_label_item(self, item: _Label, state: _GenState):
        state.labels[item.name] = state.offset

    # Handles the item `item`, returning the updated next repetition
    # instance.
    def _handle_item(self, item: _Item, state: _GenState):
        return self._item_handlers[type(item)](item, state)

    # Generates the data for a fixed-length integer item instance having
    # the value `val` and returns it.
    def _gen_fl_int_item_inst_data(self, val: int, item: _FlNum, state: _GenState):
        # Validate range
        if val < -(2 ** (item.len - 1)) or val > 2**item.len - 1:
            _raise_error_for_item(
                "Value {:,} is outside the {}-bit range when evaluating expression `{}`".format(
                    val, item.len, item.expr_str
                ),
                item,
            )

        # Encode result on 64 bits (to extend the sign bit whatever the
        # value of `item.len`).
        data = struct.pack(
            "{}{}".format(
                ">" if state.bo in (None, ByteOrder.BE) else "<",
                "Q" if val >= 0 else "q",
            ),
            val,
        )

        # Keep only the requested length
        len_bytes = item.len // 8

        if state.bo in (None, ByteOrder.BE):
            # Big endian: keep last bytes
            data = data[-len_bytes:]
        else:
            # Little endian: keep first bytes
            assert state.bo == ByteOrder.LE
            data = data[:len_bytes]

        # Return data
        return data

    # Generates the data for a fixed-length floating point number item
    # instance having the value `val` and returns it.
    def _gen_fl_float_item_inst_data(self, val: float, item: _FlNum, state: _GenState):
        # Validate length
        if item.len not in (32, 64):
            _raise_error_for_item(
                "Invalid {}-bit length for a fixed-length floating point number (value {:,})".format(
                    item.len, val
                ),
                item,
            )

        # Encode and return result
        return struct.pack(
            "{}{}".format(
                ">" if state.bo in (None, ByteOrder.BE) else "<",
                "f" if item.len == 32 else "d",
            ),
            val,
        )

    # Generates the data for a fixed-length number item instance and
    # returns it.
    def _gen_fl_num_item_inst_data(self, item: _FlNum, state: _GenState):
        # Compute value
        val = self._eval_item_expr(item, state, True)

        # Handle depending on type
        if type(val) is int:
            return self._gen_fl_int_item_inst_data(val, item, state)
        else:
            assert type(val) is float
            return self._gen_fl_float_item_inst_data(val, item, state)

    # Generates the data for all the fixed-length number item instances
    # and writes it at the correct offset within `self._data`.
    def _gen_fl_num_item_insts(self):
        for inst in self._fl_num_item_insts:
            # Generate bytes
            try:
                data = self._gen_fl_num_item_inst_data(inst.item, inst.state)
            except ParseError as exc:
                # Add all the saved parse error messages for this
                # instance.
                for msg in reversed(inst.parse_error_msgs):
                    _add_error_msg(exc, msg.text, msg.text_location)

                raise

            # Insert bytes into `self._data`
            self._data[inst.offset_in_data : inst.offset_in_data + len(data)] = data

    # Generates the data (`self._data`) and final state
    # (`self._final_state`) from `group` and the initial state `state`.
    def _gen(self, group: _Group, state: _GenState):
        # Initial state
        self._data = bytearray()

        # Item handlers
        self._item_handlers = {
            _AlignOffset: self._handle_align_offset_item,
            _Byte: self._handle_byte_item,
            _Cond: self._handle_cond_item,
            _FillUntil: self._handle_fill_until_item,
            _FlNum: self._handle_fl_num_item,
            _Group: self._handle_group_item,
            _Label: self._handle_label_item,
            _LitStr: self._handle_lit_str_item,
            _MacroExp: self._handle_macro_exp_item,
            _Rep: self._handle_rep_item,
            _SetBo: self._handle_set_bo_item,
            _SetOffset: self._handle_set_offset_item,
            _SLeb128Int: self._handle_leb128_int_item,
            _Str: self._handle_str_item,
            _ULeb128Int: self._handle_leb128_int_item,
            _VarAssign: self._handle_var_assign_item,
        }  # type: Dict[type, Callable[[Any, _GenState], None]]

        # Handle the group item, _not_ removing the immediate labels
        # because the `labels` property offers them.
        self._handle_group_item(group, state, False)

        # This is actually the final state
        self._final_state = state

        # Generate all the fixed-length number bytes now that we know
        # their full state
        self._gen_fl_num_item_insts()


# Returns a `ParseResult` instance containing the bytes encoded by the
# input string `normand`.
#
# `init_variables` is a dictionary of initial variable names (valid
# Python names) to integral values. A variable name must not be the
# reserved name `ICITTE`.
#
# `init_labels` is a dictionary of initial label names (valid Python
# names) to integral values. A label name must not be the reserved name
# `ICITTE`.
#
# `init_offset` is the initial offset.
#
# `init_byte_order` is the initial byte order.
#
# Raises `ParseError` on any parsing error.
def parse(
    normand: str,
    init_variables: Optional[VariablesT] = None,
    init_labels: Optional[LabelsT] = None,
    init_offset: int = 0,
    init_byte_order: Optional[ByteOrder] = None,
):
    if init_variables is None:
        init_variables = {}

    if init_labels is None:
        init_labels = {}

    parser = _Parser(normand, init_variables, init_labels)
    gen = _Gen(
        parser.res,
        parser.macro_defs,
        init_variables,
        init_labels,
        init_offset,
        init_byte_order,
    )
    return ParseResult._create(  # pyright: ignore[reportPrivateUsage]
        gen.data, gen.variables, gen.labels, gen.offset, gen.bo
    )


# Raises a command-line error with the message `msg`.
def _raise_cli_error(msg: str) -> NoReturn:
    raise RuntimeError("Command-line error: {}".format(msg))


# Returns the `int` or `float` value out of a CLI assignment value.
def _val_from_assign_val_str(s: str, is_label: bool):
    s = s.strip()

    # Floating point number?
    if not is_label:
        m = _const_float_pat.fullmatch(s)

        if m is not None:
            return float(m.group(0))

    # Integer?
    m = _const_int_pat.fullmatch(s)

    if m is not None:
        return int(_norm_const_int(m.group(0)), 0)

    exp = "an integer" if is_label else "a number"
    _raise_cli_error("Invalid assignment value `{}`: expecting {}".format(s, exp))


# Returns a dictionary of string to numbers from the list of strings
# `args` containing `NAME=VAL` entries.
def _dict_from_arg(args: Optional[List[str]], is_label: bool, is_str_only: bool):
    d = {}  # type: VariablesT

    if args is None:
        return d

    for arg in args:
        m = re.match(r"({})\s*=\s*(.*)$".format(_py_name_pat.pattern), arg)

        if m is None:
            _raise_cli_error("Invalid assignment `{}`".format(arg))

        if is_str_only:
            val = m.group(2)
        else:
            val = _val_from_assign_val_str(m.group(2), is_label)

        d[m.group(1)] = val

    return d


# Parses the command-line arguments and returns, in this order:
#
# 1. The input file path, or `None` if none.
# 2. The Normand input text.
# 3. The initial offset.
# 4. The initial byte order.
# 5. The initial variables.
# 6. The initial labels.
def _parse_cli_args():
    import argparse

    # Build parser
    ap = argparse.ArgumentParser()
    ap.add_argument(
        "--offset",
        metavar="OFFSET",
        action="store",
        type=int,
        default=0,
        help="initial offset (positive)",
    )
    ap.add_argument(
        "-b",
        "--byte-order",
        metavar="BO",
        choices=["be", "le"],
        type=str,
        help="initial byte order (`be` or `le`)",
    )
    ap.add_argument(
        "-v",
        "--var",
        metavar="NAME=VAL",
        action="append",
        help="add an initial numeric variable (may be repeated)",
    )
    ap.add_argument(
        "-s",
        "--var-str",
        metavar="NAME=VAL",
        action="append",
        help="add an initial string variable (may be repeated)",
    )
    ap.add_argument(
        "-l",
        "--label",
        metavar="NAME=VAL",
        action="append",
        help="add an initial label (may be repeated)",
    )
    ap.add_argument(
        "--version", action="version", version="Normand {}".format(__version__)
    )
    ap.add_argument(
        "path",
        metavar="PATH",
        action="store",
        nargs="?",
        help="input path (none means standard input)",
    )

    # Parse
    args = ap.parse_args()

    # Read input
    if args.path is None:
        normand = sys.stdin.read()
    else:
        with open(args.path) as f:
            normand = f.read()

    # Variables and labels
    variables = _dict_from_arg(args.var, False, False)
    variables.update(_dict_from_arg(args.var_str, False, True))
    labels = _dict_from_arg(args.label, True, False)

    # Validate offset
    if args.offset < 0:
        _raise_cli_error("Invalid negative offset {}")

    # Validate and set byte order
    bo = None  # type: Optional[ByteOrder]

    if args.byte_order is not None:
        if args.byte_order == "be":
            bo = ByteOrder.BE
        else:
            assert args.byte_order == "le"
            bo = ByteOrder.LE

    # Return input and initial state
    return args.path, normand, args.offset, bo, variables, typing.cast(LabelsT, labels)


# CLI entry point without exception handling.
def _run_cli_with_args(
    normand: str,
    offset: int,
    bo: Optional[ByteOrder],
    variables: VariablesT,
    labels: LabelsT,
):
    sys.stdout.buffer.write(parse(normand, variables, labels, offset, bo).data)


# Prints the exception message `msg` and exits with status 1.
def _fail(msg: str) -> NoReturn:
    if not msg.endswith("."):
        msg += "."

    print(msg.strip(), file=sys.stderr)
    sys.exit(1)


# CLI entry point.
def _run_cli():
    try:
        args = _parse_cli_args()
    except Exception as exc:
        _fail(str(exc))

    try:
        _run_cli_with_args(*args[1:])
    except ParseError as exc:
        import os.path

        prefix = "" if args[0] is None else "{}:".format(os.path.abspath(args[0]))
        fail_msg = ""

        for msg in reversed(exc.messages):
            fail_msg += "{}{}:{} - {}".format(
                prefix,
                msg.text_location.line_no,
                msg.text_location.col_no,
                msg.text,
            )

            if fail_msg[-1] not in ".:;":
                fail_msg += "."

            fail_msg += "\n"

        _fail(fail_msg.strip())
    except Exception as exc:
        _fail(str(exc))


if __name__ == "__main__":
    _run_cli()